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Bhutan

Data compiled from the following sources: CIA World Fact Book 2002, US Library of Congress Country Study Handbook, The World Almanac 2002, the UNDP, the World Bank Group and Druknet. Links to Internet sites should not be construed as an endorsement of the views contained therein.

Maps

CIA: http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bt.html

[Graphic map with principal cities]

MapZones: http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/bhutan/bhutan_country_brief.html

[Shows relationship to adjoining countries with emphasis on India]

Lonely planet: http://www.lonelyplanet.com/mapshells/indian_subcontinent/
bhutan/bhutan.htm

[Shows cities, towns and regions of interest]

Merriam Webster: http://www.m-w.com/geogpromo/bhutpic.htm

[Black & white with geographical indicators]

Atlas Profile: http://www.m-w.com/maps/bhutan.html

{Similar to above, but in colour]

Multimap: http://www.multimap.com/index/BT1.htm

[Local maps of districts & towns]

AskAsia: http://www.askasia.org/image/maps/maps.htm

[Political maps 1990, 1999 & Elevation map 1999]

Swiss Federal Institue of Technology: http://www.maps.ethz.ch/katalog1.html

[Detailed relief map]

RAOnline Bhutan: http://mypage.bluewin.ch/raonline/pages/bt/btmaps01.html

[Jurisdiction map]

Yahoo: http://media.maps.com/magellan/Images/BHUTAN-W1.gif

[Includes major cities & rivers]

National Geographic: http://plasma.nationalgeographic.com/mapmachine/index.html
?id=362&size=medium&left=88.75&bottom=26.7&right=92.11&top=28.32

[Satellite & political map]

Formal Name: Kingdom of Bhutan (Drukyul: Land of the Thunder Dragon)

Short Form: Bhutan.

Capital: Thimphu

Historical Background

Bhutan's early history is obscure but, since the 12th century, it was colonised by a succession of rival Buddhist religious orders from Tibet with the currently ruling Drukpa sect becoming established in the 17th century. Increasingly under British influence in the 19^th century, Bhutan signed the Treaty of Sinchulu in 1865, under which it received an annual subsidy in exchange for relinquishing border areas to Britain. The monarchy (Wangchuk Dynasty) was installed in 1907, followed by the Treaty of Punakha in 1910 whereby Bhutan became a British protectorate. India inherited this responsibility after 1947 while the Treaty of Friendship in 1949 returned annexed lands to the kingdom, formalised the annual subsidy, established independence for Bhutan in internal matters and defined India’s guiding role in foreign affairs. Bhutan virtually isolated itself from the rest of the world until the 1960s when it embarked on a far-reaching development strategy set forth in eight Five-Year Plans. In the 1970s, Bhutan instituted diplomatic ties with other nations and international groups that resulted in the inflow of development aid. However, the emphasis on preserving the heritage of the dominant culture has lead to ethnic unrest and unresolved refugee issues.

Geography

Location: South Asia, in eastern Himalayan mountains; 27 30 N, 90 30 E

Area: 46,620 sq km

Boundaries: 1075 km; India 605 km; China 470 km

Neighbours: Landlocked. Tibet/Xizang Autonomous Region of China on north; India on east, west and south

Topography: Mountainous with snow and glaciers in north; high mountains and fertile valleys in center; savanna and jungle in south. Four major river systems. Highest point Kulha Gangri (7,553 m). Lowest point: Drangme Chhu (97 m).

Climate: Three zones that vary with altitude. Alpine, with severe winters and cool summers in north (Himalayas; midmontane with cool winters and hot summers in central valleys and eastern areas; subtropical with monsoons in west, heat and humidity in south.

Natural hazards: Severe storms from the north (Himalayas); frequent landslides during the rainy season

Annual Rainfall: less than 1016mm

Natural resources: timber, hydropower, gypsum, calcium carbide

Strategic significance: landlocked; strategic location between China and India; controls several key Himalayan mountain passes

People

Nationality: Bhutanese

Population: 2,094,176 (CIA 2002), 828,000 (World Bank 2001). Estimates vary due to exclusion of certain ethnic groups from the official census.

Age distribution: 0-14 years: 39.8% (male 431,883; female 401,386)

15-64 years: 56.2% (male 606,184; female 571,310)

65 years and over: 4% (male 42,193; female 41,220)

Population density: 31 per sq. km.; Urban 7.4% of total (World Bank 2001), (Thimpu: 57,900, Phuntsholing 56,300, Punakha 21,000)

Population growth (annual): 2.8% (World Bank 2001), 2.15% (CIA 2002 est.)

Ethnic groups: Over 14 different distinct ethnic groups. Categorised into three groups-Bhote (Ngalops) 50%: ethnic Nepalis 35%; indigenous or migrant tribes 15%

Principal Languages: Dzongkha (official) uses chhokey (Tibetan script), Tibetan dialects spoken by Bhotes, Ngalopkha in west, Sarchopkha in east, Nepali dialects in south. English is the main language used in the school system and also the language of instruction.

Principal Religions: Lamaistic Buddhist (State religion), predominantly Drupka school of the Kagyuna sect 70 %, Hindu 25 %, Muslim 5 %. Small indeterminate number of Bon adherents. Christianity is banned

Government & Politics

Form of Government: Buddhist kingdom; hereditary monarchy with Druk Gyalpo (Dragon King) head of state and head of government. The Executive comprises the Royal Advisory Council (Lodoi Tsokde) and the Council of Ministers who are responsible to the Legislative branch or Unicameral National Assembly of which two-thirds consists of district representatives elected by direct popular consensus every three years.

Constitution: no written constitution or bill of rights; a 1953 Royal decree is used for the Constitution of the National Assembly; on 7 July 1998, a Royal edict was ratified giving the National Assembly additional powers

Legal system: based on Indian law and English common law; civil law system influenced by Buddhist law based on seventeenth century code; no written criminal and civil procedure codes; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction

Executive branch:

head of State: King Jigme Singye Wangchuk (since 24 July 1972)

head of government: Chairman of the Council of Ministers Lyonpo Khandu WANGCHUK (since 8 August 2001)
cabinet: Council of Ministers (Lhengye Shungtsog) nominated by the monarch, approved by the National Assembly; members serve fixed, five-year terms. Includes nine member Royal Advisory Council (Lodoi Tsokde).

Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Tshogdu (150 seats; 105 elected from village constituencies, 10 represent religious bodies, and 35 are designated by the monarch to represent government and other secular interests; members serve three-year terms)

Judicial branch: Supreme Court of Appeal (the monarch); High Court (judges appointed by the monarch) and district courts; minor civil disputes adjudicated by village heads.

Administrative Divisions: Four administrative zones (dzongdey) provide central government services at local levels; twenty districts (dzongkhag, singular and plural) - Bumthang, Chhukha, Chirang, Dagana, Geylegphug, Ha, Lhuntshi, Mongar, Paro, Pemagatsel, Punakha, Samchi, Samdrup Jongkhar, Shemgang, Tashigang, Thimphu, Tongsa, Wangdi Phodrang, Gasa and Yangtse). These may be divided into either subdistricts (dungkhag, 67) or village groups (gewog, 191). Thimphu District not included in zonal administration. Municipal corporations at Thimphu and Phuntsholing; 4,500 other villages and settlements.

Suffrage: each family has one vote in village-level elections

Political Parties, pressure groups and Leaders: No legal political parties; political activities carried out by elite factions, Buddhist clergy; ethnic Nepalese organizations leading militant antigovernment campaign; Indian merchant community; United Front for Democracy (exiled).

elections: none; the monarch is hereditary, but democratic reforms in July 1998 grant the National Assembly authority to remove the monarch with two-thirds vote

Independence: 8 August 1949 (from India in foreign relations concerns; internal sovereignty never subsumed during British colonial era)

National holiday: National Day (Ugyen WANGCHUCK became first hereditary king), 17 December (1907)

Foreign Relations: Special treaty relationship with India which finances 40 per cent of the Bhutan government's expenditure and receives at least 80 per cent of Bhutan's exports. Aid recipient from major international organizations and developed countries. Traditionally relied first on Britain and then on India to direct foreign affairs, increasingly asserted independence since joining United Nations in 1971; Has full diplomatic ties with Bangladesh, Hong Kong, India, Kuwait, Switzerland. No formal diplomatic relations between US and Bhutan; informal contact is maintained via US Embassy in New Delhi (India)

International organization participation: AsDB, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IMF, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, NAM, OPCW (signatory), SAARC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WTrO (observer)

Economic indicators

Overview: Bhutan’s economy, one of the world's smallest and least developed, is based on agriculture and forestry, providing the main livelihood for more than 90% of the population. Agriculture consists largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. The rugged mountainous terrain and makes the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. The economy is closely aligned with India's through strong trade and monetary links. The industrial sector is technologically limited, with most production of the cottage industry type. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian migrant labor. Bhutan's hydropower potential and its attraction for tourists are key resources. The Bhutanese Government has somewhat expanded the nation's productive base and improved social welfare. Current per capita gross domestic product (GDP) is one of the highest in South Asia. Model education, social, and environment programs in Bhutan are underway with support from multilateral development organizations. Each economic program takes into account the government's desire to protect the country's environment and cultural traditions. Detailed controls and uncertain policies in areas like industrial licensing, trade, labor, and finance continue to deter foreign investment. The country has the potential to generate 30,000 MW of power from its rivers; major hydroelectric projects will lead expansion of GDP in 2002 by an estimated 6%.

GNI – Atlas method:US$ 615.6 billion

GNI per capita – Atlas method: US$ 450.00

GDP: purchasing power parity - US$2.5 billion (2001 est.)

GDP - real growth rate: 6% (CIA 2000 est.), 4.4% (World Bank, 2001)

GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity -US$1,200 (2001 est.)

GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 45%, industry: 20%, services: 35% (CIA 2001 est.)

GDP –value added by sector: agriculture: 24.5%, industry: 26.4%, services: 49.1% (World Bank 2001)

Population below poverty line: NA%

Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA%, highest 10%: NA%

Inflation rate (consumer prices): 7% (CIA 2000 est.), 5.9% (World Bank 2001)

Labor force: NA (lack of skilled labor)

Labor force - by occupation:agriculture 93%, services 5%, industry and commerce 2%

Unemployment rate:NA%

Industries: cement, wood products, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages, calcium carbide

Industrial production growth rate: 9.3% (1996 est.)

Electricity - production: 1.876 billion kWh (2000)

Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 0.05%, hydro: 99.95%, other: 0% (2000), nuclear: 0%

Electricity - exports: 1.385 billion kWh (2000)

Electricity - imports: 21 million kWh (2000)

Agriculture - products: rice, corn, root crops, citrus, food grains; dairy products, eggs

Exports: $154 million (f.o.b., 2000 est.)

Exports of goods & services: 15.1% of GDP (World Bank 2001)

Exports - commodities: electricity (to India), cardamom, gypsum, timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, precious stones

Exports - partners: India 94%, Bangladesh

Imports: $196 million (CIA, 2000 est.)

Imports of goods & services: 18.5% of GDP (World Bank 2001)

Imports - commodities: fuel and lubricants, grain, machinery and parts, vehicles, fabrics, rice

Imports - partners: India 77%, Japan, UK, Germany, US

Trade in goods as a share of GDP: 73.9% (World Bank 2001)

Gross capital formation: 22.9% of GDP

Current revenue – excluding grants: 13.7% GDP (World Bank 2000)

Budget: revenues: $146 million

expenditures: $152 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY95/96 est.)
(the government of India finances nearly three-fifths of Bhutan's budget expenditures

Overall Budget balance – including grants: -5.5% of GDP

Present value of debt: US$ 162 mio (2000)

Total debt service: 4.2% of exports of goods & services (2000)

Short –term debt outstanding: US$ 1.1 mio (2000)

Aid per capita: US$ 66.2 (2000)

Economic aid - recipient: substantial aid from India and other nations:

Australia A$1.1 mio (est.2001/2002)

Currency: ngultrum (BTN); Indian rupee (INR)

Currency code: BTN; INR

Exchange rates: ngultrum per US dollar - 48.336 (January 2002), 36.313 (1997); the Bhutanese ngultrum is

par with the Indian rupee which is also legal tender

Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June

Development index

Overview: Bhutan has already achieved some of the goals in the Millennium Development Goals, a program that includes ensuring environmental sustainability and achieving universal primary education by 2015, and has specific plans to effect the others. Social indicators have also improved over the past decade; infant and maternal mortality have decreased by almost 50 percent, while literacy and education enrollment rates have risen with primary school enrollment among girls equal or higher than boys. Whereas adult work loads, child care responsibility and property rights are roughly equal, the representation of women at the policy and decision making bodies is negligible. Depletion of forest cover is effectively managed, due, in part to official limitations on annual tourist intake.

Human Development Index Ranking: 155 out of 174 countries

Health

Life expectancy at birth: 62.2 years (World Bank 2000)

Total population- 53.19 years (CIA 2002 est.)
Female- 52.83 years, Male- 53.53 years

Fertility rate: 5.4 births/woman

Birth rate: 35.26 births/1,000

Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female

under 15 years: 1.08 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 1.02 male(s)/female
total population: 1.07 male(s)/female (CIA 2002 est

Mortality rate: 13.74 deaths/1,000 population

Infant Mortality rate: 57.6 deaths/1000 live births (World Bank 2000), 106.79 deaths/1,000 live births (CIA 2002 est.)

Hospital beds: 1 per 825 persons (1994)

Physicians: 1 per 8000 persons (1994)

Access to essential drugs: 85% of total population

HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: less than 0.01% (1999 est.)

HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: less than 100 (1999 est.)

HIV/AIDS - deaths: NA

Education

Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 42.2%
male: 56.2%
female: 28.1% (1995 est.)

Schooling: free, not compulsory

Net primary enrollment: 71% of relevant age group

Girls in primary school: 45% of total enrollment

Student to teacher ratio: 38 (1999)

Communications

Telephone system: domestic telephone service is very poor with few telephones in use. International telephone and telegraph service is by landline through India.

Fixed telephone lines and mobile phones: 19.6 per 1000 people (World Bank 2000), 6000 (CIA 1997)

Radio broadcast stations: AM 0, FM 1, shortwave 1 (1998)

Radios: 37,000 (1997)

Newspapers: 1 weekly

Television broadcast stations: 0 (1997)

Televisions: 11,000 (1997)

Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA

Internet country code: .bt

Internet users: 500 (2000)

Personal computers: 5.2 per 1000 people

Communications and media –related websits:

World Press Freedom review (2001): http://www.freemedia.at/wpfr/bhutan.htm

Transport

Railways: 0 km

Highways: total: 3,285 km, paved: 1,994 km (60.7% of total roads, 1997), unpaved: 1,291 km (1996)

Bridges: 538 (1999)

Registered Vehicles: 2,659 (1999)

Waterways: none

Ports and harbors: none

Airports: 2 (2001)

Airports - with paved runways: total: 1; 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2001)

Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 1; 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (2001)

Aircraft departures: 1100 (2001)

Environment

Surface area: 5.1 mio. Sq. km

Forest areas: 30,160.0 sq km

Annual deforestation: 0% of change

Freshwater resources per capita: 118,000 cu.m (2000)

Improved water source: 62% total population with access (2000)

Adequate sanitation facilities, urban: 65% urban population with access (2000)

CO2 emissions per capita: 0.5 metric tons

Energy consumption (Electricity): 380.68 million kWh (2000

Tourism: 5000 people per year intake

Environment - current issues: soil erosion; limited access to potable water

Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Nuclear Test Ban signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea

Environment-related websites:

National Environment Commission: http://members.tripod.com/~Tshewang/index.html

Sustainable Development Secretariat: http://www.propoor.org/xngo.asp?id=13801

World Wildlife Fund Bhutan Program: http://www.wwfbhutan.org.bt/

EIA Country Analysis Briefs: http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/bhutan.html

Ecotourism and impact: http://www.findarticles.com/cf_dls/m1076/8_41/56640434/p1/article.jhtml

Security

Military branches: Royal Bhutan Army, Royal Bodyguard, National Militia, Royal Bhutan Police, Forest Guards

Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age (2002 est.)

Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 517,470 (2002 est.)

Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 276,303 (2002 est.)

Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 21,167 (2002 est.)

Military expenditures: US$9.3 million (FY01)

Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.9% (FY01)

Current Political Scenario

Disputes - international: approximately 100,000 Bhutanese refugees living in Nepal, 90% of whom reside in seven UN Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees camps, place decades-long strains on Nepal. In December 2000, the two countries established a Joint Verification Team to identify potential candidates for repatriation, a process that has yet to be implemented. Maoist Assamese separatists from India, who have established themselves in the southeast portion of Bhutan, have drawn Indian cross-border incursions.

Current political Scenario-related websites:

Bhutanese Refugee Crisis, by DP Kafley: http://www.track3connections.org/Journal/Articles/RefCris_Bt.html

Current major development projects

Although the government is highly reliant on external aid, it is determined to decrease its dependence on expatriate workers. To this end, government monitors the number of expatriate workers allowed into the country and allocates each agency particular sectors for participation.

Information on projects, countries and organisations concerned with development activity with links to websites can be found on:

Accessible Information on Development Activities (AiDA): http://www.developmentgateway.org/node/100647/country/index

World Bank:

Country brief: http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/sar/sa.nsf/88c14925eec19059852
567d7005d5308/aa73ed5105fb144485256804005deaa1?OpenDocument

Project overview:

http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Results.asp?Coun=BT&Sec=&Lend=&sYr
=All&eYr=All&Env=All&Stat=All&sortby=bdate&sortcat=Desc&display=10&s
t=DetSrc&IMAGE1.x=40&IMAGE1.y=12

Rural Access Project: http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P059481

Urban development Project: http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P057570

Education Project: http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P009574

NGOs in Bhutan

Asian Development Bank (ADB): http://www.adb.org/Bhutan/

United Nations: UNDP; http://www.undp.org.bt/

other UN organisations: http://www.undp.org.bt/agencies/index.htm

Swiss Association for International Cooperation (Helvetas): http://www.helvetas.org.bt/

Japan International Cooperation Agency/Japan Overseas Corporation Volunteers (JICA/JOCV): http://www.jica.org.bt/

Netherlands Development Organization (SNV): http://www.snv.org.bt/

World Wildlife Fund (WWF Bhutan): http://www.wwfbhutan.org.bt/

NGOs working at grassroots level

Volunteer Sending Organisation: http://www.oneworld.org/vso/explore/cprofiles/bhutan.htm

[International development charity working through volunteers. Based in the UK, Canada & the Netherlands]

Investment prospects

Human rights situation

Bhutan is a hereditary monarchy without a constitution or a bill of rights. Citizens do not have the right to change their government. No political party operates legally. Judges serve at the King's pleasure. There are no written criminal and civil procedure codes; judicial processes are based on traditional practices. Programs to build a body of written law and train lawyers are progressing. The Government restricts freedom of speech, the press, assembly, association, and worker rights. There are significant limitations on the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, and citizens' privacy. Private television reception has been banned since 1989.

The rapid growth of the ethnic Nepalese segment of the population led to official efforts to tighten citizenship requirements. The Citizenship Act of 1985 deprived the Lhotsampas, Bhutanese Hindus of Nepalese origin, of citizenship, which resulted in political unrest, leading to ethnic conflict and repression of ethnic Nepalese in southern districts during the 1980's and 1990's.

An estimated 126,000 persons from Bhutan were living as refugees in neighboring countries, including nearly 111,000 in Nepal and more than 15,000 in India (2001). Most fled to between late 1990 and 1992 to escape what refugee leaders term “ethnic cleansing” by the Bhutanese authorities. The Royal Bhutan Police, assisted by the Royal Bhutan Army, including those assigned to the Royal Body Guard, and a national militia, maintain internal security. Members of these forces allegedly committed human rights abuses against ethnic Nepalese. Prison conditions are reportedly adequate. A prison visit program begun in 1993 by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and establishment of a new prison in Chemgang in 1994 substantially improved conditions of detention.

Political and other extrajudicial killing: no reports

Politically motivated disappearance: no reports

Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment: ethnic Nepalese refugees attempting to return to Bhutan were allegedly captured by security forces, tortured, and sent back across the border.

Human Rights – related websites:

Amnesty International Report 1999: http://www.amnesty.org/ailib/aireport/ar99/asa14.htm

Asian Human rights commision: http://www.bhootan.org/hrreports/ahrc.htm

Bhootan.org: http://www.bhootan.org/

Bhutan Women and Children Organization (BWCO): http://www.geocities.com/bhutanwomen/

Oneworld.net: http://www.oneworld.net/themes/country/country_64_1.shtml

http://www.oneworld.net/cgi-bin/index.cgi?root=129&url=http://www.propoor.org

United States Department of State country reports on Human Rights practices (2001):
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2001/sa/8228.htm

State Institutions & Official websites

Audit Authority: http://www.raa.gov.bt/

Bhutan Board of Examinations: http://www.education.gov.bt/

Bhutan Department of Employment & Labour: http://www.employment.gov.bt/

Bhutan Health Trust Fund: http://www.bhtf.gov.bt

Bhutan National Bank: http://www.bnb.com.bt/

Bhutan Trust Fund (Environmental Conservation): http://www.bhutantrustfund.org/

Bhutan Tourism Corporation: http://www.kingdomofbhutan.com/

Centre for Bhutan Studies: http://www.geocities.com/bhutanstudies/

Construction Development Board: http://www.cdb.gov.bt/

Cultural Trust Fund: http://www.ctf.gov.bt/

Department of Roads: http://www.dor.gov.bt/

Department of Tourism: http://www.tourism.gov.bt/

Ministry of Agriculture

Ministry of Finance: http://www.mof.gov.bt/

Ministry of Trade and Industry: http://www.mti.gov.bt

National Library of Bhutan: http://www.library.gov.bt/

Planning Commission Secretariat: http://www.pcs.gov.bt/

Royal Bhutan Airlines (Drukair) http://www.drukair.com.bt/

Royal Civil Service Commission: http://www.rcsc.gov.bt/

Royal Institute of Management: http://www.rim.edu.bt/index.php3

Royal Insurance Corporation of Bhutan: http://www.ricb.com.bt/

Royal Society for the Protection of Nature: http://www.rspn-bhutan.org/

Communications & Media:

Bhutan Broadcasting Service: http://www.bbs.com.bt/

[Offers shortwave programming; daily FM broadcasts in Thimphu; no foreign television reception]

Bhutan Post: http://www.bhutanpost.com.bt/

Bhutan Telecom: http://www.telecom.net.bt/

Druknet, internet Service: http://www.druknet.net.bt/

Division of Information Technology: http://www.dit.gov.bt/

Kuensel, government-owned weekly newspaper: http://www.kuenselonline.com

Other Websites

Australian Dept. of Foreign Affairs & Trade: http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/bhutan/bhutan_country_brief.html

[Good background information about Bhutan and relationship to Australia]

Bootan: www.bootan.com

[The first private site which is dedicated exclusively to various aspects of Bhutan]

Latest books

Crossette, Barbara: So close to heaven; the vanishing Buddhist kingdoms of the Himalayas. 1st ed.: A.A. Knopf. Distributed by Random House. New York, 1995.

Dhakal, D.N.S., Strawn Christopher: Bhutan; a movement in exile. 1st ed. Nirala Publications, Jaipur, 1994.

Dorji, C.T.: History of Bhutan based on Buddhism. foreword by Lyonpo Dawa Tsering. 1st ed. Sangay Xam in collaboration with Prominent Publishers, Thimphu, Bhutan, 1994.

Hutt, Michael (ed): Bhutan; perspectives on conflict and dissent. Gartmore, Stirlingshire, Scotland: Kiscadale, c1994. Series title: Kiscadale Asia research series, no. 3.

Savada, Andrea Matles (ed): Nepal and Bhutan; country studies. 3rd ed.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Wahington, D.C. For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Office, 1993. Series title: DA pam; 550-35. Series title: Area handbook series.

National Environmental Secretariat, Planning Commission: Bhutan, towards sustainable development in a unique environment. Thimphu, Bhutan, 1992

Sinha, Awadhesh Coomar: Bhutan; ethnic identity and national dilemma. Reliance Pub. House, New Delhi, 1991. Series title: Sociological publications in honour of K. Ishwaran ; vol. 10.

Karan, P.P.: Bhutan; Environment, Culture and Development Strategy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, 1990: www.uky.edu/AS/Geography/dept/bhutanenvironment.htm

Bibliographic links:

University of California, Berkeley: www.lib.berkeley.edu/SSEAL/SouthAsia/bhutan.html
[Thematically ordered bibliography on Bhutan]

Latest journal articles

Thierry Mathou: Bhutan in 2001: at the crossroads. In: Asian survey 42 (Jan/Feb 2002)1. pp. 192-197.

Future prospects – fore casts